In this past year I had done quite a number of self-researches, and I will share one research on the different reaction of various blood types.
Every once in the while I come across some piece of news that talks about blood transfusion along with terms like "Universal donor" and "Universal recipients". I was very curious and did some self-research. Here's what I found out:
Different blood type reactions
Blood Type
A
B
AB
O
Antigens
A
B
A, B
NONE
Antibody
B
A
None
A, B
If you have the A antigen, you have type A blood. The liquid portion of your blood (plasma) has antibodies that fight against type B blood.
If you have the B antigen, you have type B blood. Your plasma has antibodies that fight against type A blood.
If you have neither the A nor B antigen, you have type O blood. Your plasma has antibodies that fight against both type A and type B blood.
If you have both the A and B antigens, you have type AB blood. Your plasma does not have antibodies against type A or type B blood.
Antibodies fight against antigens, therefore, if somehow a person with type A blood receive type B blood, any of the four reactions below could happen.
Fluid overload - this common side effect can be lessened by slowly introducing the donated blood.
Allergic reaction - the most common complication. The recipient’s immune system treats the donated blood
products as a threat. Symptoms include itching, dizziness, headache and difficulties in breathing.
Haemolytic reaction - occurs if the recipient is given the wrong type of blood. The transfused red blood
cellsare killed off. Symptoms include a feeling of pressure in the chest, back pain and difficulties in breathing.
Haemolytic reaction can sometimes be life threatening.
Graft versus host disease - where the donated white blood cell destroy the recipient’s cells. The
symptoms include low blood pressure and fever. It is also life threatening.
The term "Universal Donor" refers to people with the O negative blood, they can donate blood to a person with any blood type, since the O negative blood does not contain any antigens, thus causing no reactions when it is being transfused to another person.
However, a person with the O negative blood can only receive blood from another person with the exact same blood type, thus making it tough for the person if he/she has any type of disease that requires blood transfusion, since only around 7% of the world population has the O negative blood type.
The term "Universal Recipients", on the other hand, refers to people with the AB negative blood. Since they contain no antibodies, they will not react with any blood type. Therefore, they can receive blood from a person with any blood type. These people make up only 1% of the Earth's population, and is the rarest blood type that exists.
Conclusion: After doing some self-research, I finally understood what blood transfusion is all about. I also learnt about the various blood types and the reactions among these blood types. It came as a shock to me as I realized that if any process during the blood transfusion is not executed properly, a person could be in grave danger just because of the reactions of his/her blood type with other blood types.
I myself have a type B positive blood, which is quite common and is able to receive blood from a person with blood type B+ B- O+ O-. Overall, I enjoyed doing self-researches as I find them great opportunities to learn about new things.
Over the past year me and 3 of my friends had been working on an experimental project. The project title is "The Effect of Light on Speed of Reading".
We first got the idea for this project when I came across a research done by Miles Albert Tinker, it was about "The Effect of Intensity of Illumination upon Speed of Reading Six-Point Italic Print", you can view part of it by clicking HERE.
Here's a list of information about our project:
Objectives:
Our Experiment's objective is to find out what is the most suitable light intensity for reading.
Hypothesis:
The most suitable intensity of light for reading is most probably 350 lux.
Research have shown that the minimum light intensity required for typical desk office work is 320 lux.
Variables:
Independent Variable
Light Intensity (measured in lux)
Dependent Variables
Average speed of reading among students.
This is measured by how long each student takes to finish reading a passage and dividing the number of words the passage has with it.
Controlled Variables
Genre of passage
Distance between light source and table
Reading ability of students
Surrounding Environment (noise level, etc)
Time of experiment (morning, afternoon, etc)
Materials and Equipments
Lux meter
A lamp (to adjust brightness of light)
Stopwatches
Reading Materials of same genre
30 Volunteers
Methods and Procedures
A control experiment is needed to be conducted to find 30 students with the most similar speed of reading (within a range).
Over time, these chosen 30 students will be given different passages to read and the number of words they can read in a minute will be recorded down.
We will keep the genres of the books to the same and the difficulty at which there will be no new or unfamiliar words for the readers.
This is done to eliminate the problems that includes how appealing the passages are to the readers and the verbal skills of the readers.
Results
We went through a couple of experiments conducted during the June holidays, the results are as below:
According to the data recorded, 500 lux is the ideal intensity for the pace of reading.
Over the course of this project, I learnt about the importance of teamwork and what it takes to be a leader of a team. It was a very valuable experience for me.
In this past year we had a total of 18 lab sessions, listed as follow: 1P1: Getting to know the Science Laboratory 1P2: Hot Stuff with Flames 1P3: Observing and Recording Part 1 1P4: Observing and Recording Part 2 1P5: Pendulum Predictions 1P6: Measurement of Length 1P7: Determining Density 1P8: Brownian Motion 1P9: Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures 1P10: Formula Compounds 1P11: Which can dissolve more? 1P12: A Separation Problem 1P13: Who Wrote the Secret Message? 1P14: Inside of Cells 1P15: Bouncy Raw Egg with Moving Waters 1P16: Potato Bloating??? 1P17: Extracting Chlorophyll 1P18: Artificial Small Intestines
I would like to talk about two sessions that I find very interesting.
The first experiment is about a separation problem.
There was a bowl of ingredients that we were supposed separate, the ingredients are iron filings, common salt, sand, and small Styrofoam beads.
We started out the experiment by placing a magnet above the bowl and attracting all the iron filings to it.
After all the iron filings are removed, water is poured into the bowl. The beads then float on the top of the water because of its low density and we could easily collect the beads.
Meanwhile, we can stir the water to ensure that all the salt are dissolved in it, and filter the suspension with filter paper. Sand is left behind and the solution that remains is saltwater. We extract the salt by crystallization (heating of salt water with Bunsen burner), and we collected all four the ingredients in the end.
Another experiment was about the "Bouncy Raw Egg with Moving Waters".
The experiment was about how to make a raw egg bouncy, it was relatively simple and fun at the same time. All you need to do is place the egg in vinegar for quite a while, wait until the eggshell is dissolved, and place it in water for some time. The egg will be bouncy like rubber soon.
Here's a video introducing to you the entire process:
I find the topics on separation techniques very complicated and hard to remember, as there are a whole list of them, E.g. Evaporation, Crystallization, Distillation, Fractional Distillation, Paper chromatography, etc., and we need to memorize every method's way of working and the differences between each of them.
Elements, mixtures, and compounds required a lot of time as I had some trouble memorizing the different chemical formulas and the characteristics of each.
We also needed to memorize some parts of the periodic table, and it was quite a challenge as well.
As for the topic on cells, I did not really run into any problems as most of the things taught were already covered in Primary School.
I prepared quite well for the test by completing lots of practices from multiple assessment books on my own and scored another A1, I'm really happy about the result.
Over the past year there had been a lot of topics that had been taught to us.
You can check HERE to see a broad scheme or schedule of our teachings. Here I will talk about several important issues that were taught to us in Secondary One.
Topic 1: Science as an Inquiry
This topic is separated into two sections, and both of them are extremely important and useful throughout the entire year.
The first sections is about what is Science and why Science is important.
The notes explain that Science stands for scientia in latin, which means "knowledge".
It also explains to us the three major elements involved in the study of Science, namely: Attitudes, Processes and Methods, Products. Afterwards it also introduced to us the benefits of Science and what would happen if Science were abused.
This section of this topic was all in theories but they are very important to us as all the things it talked about were like ground rules and foundations for the studying of Science.
The second section is about the Science labs. They include the rules and regulations in the lab and some common apparatus used. The notes focused on the Bunsen Burner and it is crucial to know how it works as many experiments requires heating and we need to know how to use the Bunsen Burner safely so that there are no risks of a strike-back, a gas leak or anything dangerous.
Here's a very interesting song about the Bunsen Burner, it is a very good way to learn about the various controls and properties of a Bunsen Burner.
Topic 2: Measurements
Under this topic we learn about the use of all kinds of measuring equipment, from the simple meter rule that measures length to the accurate burette that measures the volume of liquids.
I will focus on one specific measuring equipment here, called the vernier calipers, which I found very difficult to understand at first.
A vernier caliper can be used to measure the both the external and internal dimensions of something. That function is often used when measuring the thickness of a cup (external diameter-internal diameter/2=thickness of the cup).
The steps to using a vernier calipers are:
1. Close the jaws (see above picture) to ensure the 0 mark are straightened on the vernier scale and the main scale. This is to check for zero errors, which will affect the final reading.
2. Adjust the jaws to clamp onto the object.
3. Check the reading on the main scale, the reading should be a x.x number, where the 0 on the vernier scale is the stopping mark.
4. Check for the lined up mark between the main scale and the vernier scale, the number on the vernier scale is recorded. The unit is 0.01 cm.
5. Add the reading on the main scale with the reading on the vernier scale, the total is the length of the object.
Zero error often occurs when the vernier calipers are used. The zero error occurs when the zero marks and the main scale failed to align when the jaws are completely closed. There are 2 types of zero errors: Positive zero error and the negative error. The positive zero error is when the initial reading overestimated as the zero mark of the vernier scale lies on the right of the main scale. The negative zero error is when the initial reading is underestimated as the zero mark of vernier scale lies on the left of the main scale.Lastly, we are taught how to use the micrometer screw gauge. The micrometer has 2 scales: the main scale on the sleeve, and the circular scale on the thimble. Method of reading: 1) Read the main scale reading at the edge of the thimble 2) Take the thimble reading opposite the datum line of the main scale 3) The reading is found by adding the main scale reading to the thimble reading This section of Science was a very practical and mathematical area of it. It requires basic mathematical skills and a strong understanding of concept.
Apart from measurements, the notes also provided explanations on how to use various other instruments. At the end, we learnt about the SI units of all the measurements, and here they are:
Topic 3: Classification of Matter
In this topic the Kinetic Particle theory was taught to us. Kinetic particle theory states that the matter is made of tiny discrete particles, which are in constant and random motion. This statement is supported by two other subjects that we learnt named the Brownian Motion and Diffusion.
Brownian Motion is the presumably random moving of particles suspended in a fluid resulting from their bombardment by the fast-moving atoms or molecules in the liquid. A simulation of Brownian motion below：
Diffusion, on the other hand, is a very basic principle of liquids and gasses. When diffusion occurs, molecules in an area of relatively high concentration move to an area of relatively low concentration.
In this topic we were also taught the three states of matter: Solids. liquids, and gases. Differences between the three were introduced to us as well.
I find this section of the topic quite simple and useful at the same time. It was fairly easy to understand.
Topic 4: Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures
In this topic we learnt about the differences between compounds and mixtures:
We also had to memorize some things from the periodic table:
As well as certain chemical formulas such as Na+Cl2=NaCl
We conducted several experiments such as testing out the properties of some elements and see what would happen if you A)combine them physically (mixture) B) combine them chemically (compound). It turned out that a mixture would have both elements' properties while a compound could share similar properties with only one or even none elements.
Topic 5: Separation Techniques
This topic is very complex, and I will introduce some important and complex separation techniques.
Distillation:
Distillation is the technique used to separate two miscible substances, such as common salt and water. The theory uses the different boiling points of different substances. The process is as follow:
The solution is first heated, the substance with the lower boiling point will evaporate first and float upwards. It then does to the condenser where it is in gas form. Slowly it condenses and rolls into a receiving flask. The other substance with a higher melting point is then left behind.
Crystallization:
Crystallization is a process of forming crystals. It is also a method for separating dissolved solids from a solution. It is quite similar to evaporation, and is often confused with it.
Chromatography:
"In paper chromatography, there are two factors which the movement of each substance in the mixture need to depends on.
The solubility of the substance in the solvent. The substance moves with the solvent easily if the substance is very soluble in the solvent.
The adsorption of the substance on the filter paper. Some solids are able to attract other substance strongly and hold them on their surface. This is called ADSORPTION. The substance will not move with the solvent easily if the substance in the mixture is absorbed strongly by the filter paper.
Since none of the two substances have the same adsorption and solubility, each substance will travel a different distance along the filter paper. One substance is separated from another in this way. The substances separated by chromatography do not have to be colored. Colorless substance can be made to show up by spraying the paper with a locating agent. Then reacts with each of the colorless substances in order to produce a colored product. We often used chromatography to identify the substances in a mixture. It is commonly used in hospital. It help doctors to find out whether the patient has diabetes, if paper chromatography might fund out whether sugar is present in the patient's urine. Chromatography can also used to identify different dyes used in food."
(http://library.thinkquest.org/11430/research/chromato.htm)
Topic 6: Cells
In this topic we learnt about the characteristics of a cell, and the differences between an animal cell and a plant cell.
Firstly, what is a cell?
The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The cell was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665.
Here is a typically animal cell:
There are many differences between an animal cell and a plant cell:
Conclusion: That is my coverage on the important issues covered in the Science Syllabus. Over the past year a lot of things had been taught to us, and it is hard to say which one is the most important. In the end, we all need to study them with equal concentration and focus so that we could do well in tests.
In term 3 I chose Science as my ACE subject, and I did the ACE project in two parts, the first was a documentary review, the documentary, which was about vitamins inspired me to create the second part of the project which is a powerpoint about vitamins' functions, and the diseases that might come with extreme intake of each kind.
The documentary was named "The truth about vitamins":
And here is my review:
Part 1: Vitamin C Every year there are £300 million spent on vitamin products. Some people believe vitamin productscan help to preventor even cure some extremely fatal diseases such as heart disease and cancer. Others, especiallysome scientists, insists that taking in large quantity of these may be harmful to human body.
Linus Pauling, a great scientist who won the Nobel Prize twice, claimed in the 20th century, that by taking huge amount of vitamin C people could prevent and cure the common cold/flu. He predicted that if everybody practiced his suggestion, the common cold could even be completely wiped out. Many scientists did not believe in his theories as there were no proof or evidences, and thus his statement could not be supported.
However, many people appreciated this idea and thus an industry surrounding vitamin products was started.Nevertheless, none of us are perfect and latest evidence proves that the world renowned scientist was wrong: Vitamin C can help one recover once he/she caught a cold, but for most people it does nothing to help prevent catching one to start with.
Even if large doses of vitamin C do not prevent the common cold, some claim that it can still offer a much longer-termed benefit. There is one group of vitamins called anti-oxidants that some believe can prevent illnesses such as cancer, Alzheimer's and heart disease.
Part 2: Vitamins in general In 2004, scientists in the United States stated that people could be missing out on the benefits of taking one of the best anti-oxidants in the world, Vitamin E, because their bodies might not be absorbing it. "While most safety experts believe that vitamins C and E can be taken safely even in quite large doses, there is worrying evidence that one form of another common vitamin, vitamin A, could be linked to osteoporosis, a debilitating bone disease. If the theory is right it means that a person's diet, or some supplements that they take every day to improve their health, could actually be slowly and silently weakening their bones"
Reflections and Ideas:
After watching the documentary I learnt the benefits of taking in vitamins on a regular basis and the harms of taking in too much vitamins.
I feel that there is not really a need to spend so much money on the vitamin projects when the most direct source of obtaining various source of vitamins is to eat a healthy and balanced meal as natural vitamins are cheaper, better absorbed by the human body, and healthier compared to the vitamin products on the market.
In addition, taking vitamin in great quantity is not always good for the body, I did some research after watching the documentary and understood that there are "deficiency diseases" (not enought) and "overdose diseases" (too much) for each type of vitamin.
In conclusion, the intake of vitamins is vital for us to maintain healthy, and the best way to achieve that is to take in sufficient natural vitamins, and at an acceptable quantity on a regular basis.
Self Research:
I was inspired after watching the documentary and went on to research about different vitamins' functions, what happens if you don't take enough of each kind, and what happens if you take too much.
I made my results into a powerpoint as a Part B of my Science ACE, I feel that these two projects should be related yet not counted as the same.
To understand the importance of Science, you must first understand the meaning of it.
According to the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary,
"Science (from Latin scientia, meaning "knowledge") is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe."
Here's a video introducing to you the importance of Science.
Here are some of my view on why Science is important:
1. Science is important because it can cure many diseases. 100 years ago, a person could possibly die from pneumonia or other diseases that we could cure with medication nowadays, and it is all about the evolution of Science. Science could save lives, and therefore it is definitely very important.
2. Science is important because it allows us to study and understand things around us. For example, microscopes allow us to see all the micro-organisms we cannot see with our bare eyes, and telescopes allow us to look into space and study stars very far away from us, and those are all inventions of Science.
3. Science had given us great inventions. All the machines we use today, such as the laptop I'm using right now to type this reflection, were products of innovative Science. They made our lives so much easier and more fast-paced, and allow us to put more energy and time doing what we have to do.
In term 2 we learnt about two topics: "kinetic particle of theory" and "measurements". In the beginning, I found it hard to keep track of all the measurement tools and the ways that they were used. The ways to use the Vernier Calipers and the Micrometer Screw Gauge were very hard to understand and I could not get the correct answers for the measurements, but I looked into various books for reference and understood the concepts finally. For the kinetic particle of theory topic, I understood it quite well and found concepts such as the three states of an object and the Brownian motion really interesting.
For the test in term 2 I prepared quite well and scored 38/45, one of the highest in class. I did great in the critical thinking section of the test, and despite a little careless mistakes, I did well overall. I am really pleased with my scores and I hope that I could continue this quality of work in term 3.
Here is a short video on how to read the measurement on vernier calipers:
And here is a picture of a micrometer screw gauge:
Lastly, a video on brownian motion:
In a virtual lab lesson, Mr. Sim showed us a similar video drawn up by a computer programme.
I came back to Singapore six months before school started in January, and it was a major change for me as I had been studying in an American education system.
Science was perhaps the subject which I found most different and challenging.
In Term 1 the topic we learnt about was "Science as an inquiry". It was actually quite new to me as I was learning mainly about things like the human body systems in my old school.
I soon began to read the notes and practice on my own, and I was able to understand what was taught in class better. I still had a hard time trying to memorize the equipment used in lab experiments, but very soon the test came.
I finished with a score of 34/45, a bare A1, I felt quite happy with myself after knowing about the score as I was unsure of quite a number of questions, however, I think that I could do even better next term.
Here's a video introducing a number of lab equipment:
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